Textbook of Remote Sensing and Geographical Information Systems

Reddy, M. Anji, "Textbook of Remote Sensing and Geographical Information Systems"
MgH | 2008 | ISBN: 8178001357, 1441661522 | 476 pages | PDF | 28,5 MB

Contents
11. Map Language 1-23
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Mapas Model
1.2.1 Spatial Elements
1.2.2 Terminology
1.3 Classification of Maps
1.4 Map Scale
1.5 Spatial Referencing System
1.6 Map Projections
1.6.1 Grouping of Map Projections
1.7 Commonly used Map Projections and their Comparison
1.7.1 Mercator
1.7.2 Transverse Mercator
1.7.3 Oblique Mercator
1.7.4 Polyconic Projection
1.7.5 Lambert Confcal Orthomorphic Projection
1.8 Grid Systems
1.8.1 Lambert Grid for India
1.8.2 Universal Transverse Mercator (UTM) Grid
1.9 Computer in Map Production
1.10 Digital Database in a GIS
1.10.1' Digitiser Units Vs Real World Coordinates
1.11 Linkage of GIS to Remote Sensing
(xiv) Contents
2. Remote Sensing - Basic Principles 24-54
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Electromagnetic Remote Sensing Process
2.3 Physics of Radiant Energy
2.3.1 Nature of Electromagnetic Radiation
2.3.2 Electromagnetic Spectrum
2.4 Energy Source and its Characteristics
2.5 Atmospheric Interactions with Electromagnetic Radiation
2.5.1 Atmospheric Properties
2.5.2 Absorption of Ozone
2.5.3 Atmospheric Effects on Spectral Response Patterns
2.6 Energy Interactions with Earth's Surface Materials
2.6.1 Spectral Reflectance Curves
2.7 Cossine Law
3. Microwave Remote Sensing
3.1 Introduction
3.2 The Radar Principle
3.3 Factors Affecting Microwave Measurements
3.3.1 Surface Roughness
3.3.2 Radar Scattering Mechanism
3.4 Radar Wavebands
3.5 Side Looking Airborne Radar (SLAR) systems
3.6 Synthetic Aperture Radar (SAR)
3.7 Interaction Between Microwaves and Earth's Surface
3.7:1 Speckle Noise
3.7.2 Backscattered Radar Intensity
3.8 Interpreting SAR Images
3.9 Geometrical Characteristics
3.9.1 Slope Foreshortening
3.9.2 Layover
3.9.3 Aspect
3.9.4 Radar Shadow
Contents
4. Remote Sensing Platforms and Sensors
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Satellite System Parameters
4.2.1 Instrumental Parameters
4.2.2 Viewing Parameters
4.3 Sensor Parameters
4.3.1 Spatial Resolution
4.3.2 Spectral Resolution
4.3.3 Radiometric Resolution
4.4 Imaging Sensor Systems
4.4.1 Multispectral Imaging Sensor Systems
4.4.2 Thermal Sensing Systems
4.4.3 Microwave Image Systems
4.5 Earth Resources Satellites
4.5.1 Landsat Satellite Programme
4.5.2 SPOT Satellite Programme
4.5.3 Indian Remote Sensing Satellite (IRS)
4.5.4 AEM Satellites
4.6 Meteorological Satellites
4.6.1 NOAA Satellites
4 6.2 GOES Satellites
4.6.3 NIMBUS Satellites
4.6.4 Meteosat Series
4.7 Satellites Carrying Microwave Sensors
4.7.1 Seasat
4.7.2 European Remote Sensing Satellite-1
4.7 3 Radarsat
4.8 OCEANSAT -1 (IRS-P4)
4.9 IKONOS Satellite Series
4.10 Latest Trends ·in Remote Sensing Platforms and sensors
4.10.1 Quick Bird
4.10.2 Cartosat-1
4.10.3 Resourcesat-1
(xv)
74-123
(xvi) Contents
5. Visual Image Interpretation 124-156
5.1 Introduction
5.2 Types of Pictoral Data Products
5.3 Image interpretation strategy
5.3.1 Levels of Interpretation Keys
5.4 Process of Image Interpretation
5.5 Interpretation of Aerial Photo
5.6 General procedure for photo interpretation
5.6.1 Preliminary Stage
5.6.2 Detailed Examination
5.6.3 I nterpretation Stage
5.6.4 Compilation Stage
5.7 Three dimensional interpretation Method
5.7.1 Stereoscopic Depth Perception
5.7.2 Stereo Scope
5.8 Basic elements of Image Interpretation
5.9 Application of Aerial Photo Interpretation
5.10 Interpretation of Satellite Imagery
5.11 Key Elements of Visual Image Interpretation
5.11.1 Visual Inter Pretatlon of Topographic Features Based on Reflection
Characterstics of Images is Given Table 15.1 Below.
5.11.2 Drainage Pattern and Texture
5.11.3 Erosion
5.11.4 Image Tone
5.11.5 Vegetation and Land Use
5.12 Concept of Converging Evidence
6. Digital Image Processing 157-218
6.1 Introduction
6.2 Basic Character of Digital Image
6.3 Preprocessing
6.3 1 Geometric Correction Methods
6.3.2 Radiometric Correction Methods
6.3.3 Atmospheric Correction Methods
Contents
7.
6.4 Image Registration
6.4.1 Conversion of Geographical Coordinates to Conical
Orthomorphic Coordinates
6.4.2 Transformation of Conical Orthomorphic Coordinates to
Drgitallmagery Coordinates
6.5 Image Enhancement Techniques
6.5.1 Contrast Enhancement
6.6 Spatial Filtering Techniques
6.6.1 Low Pass Filters
6.6.2 High Pass Filters
6.6.3 Filtering for Edge Enhancement
6.7 Image Transformations
6.7.1 NDVI Transformation
6.7.2 PCA Transformation
6.8 Image Classification
6.8.1 Supervised Classification
6.8.2 Trammg Dataset
6.8.3 Unsupervised Classification
6.9 Performance Analysis of IRS-bands for Landuse/Landcover
Classification System using Maximum Likelihood Classifier
6.9.1 Classification Methodology
6.9.2 The Landuse and Landcover Classification System
6.9.3 Data Analysis
6.9.4 Classification Accuracy Approach
6.10 Image classification and GIS
Fundamentals of GIS
7.1 Introduction
7.2 Roots of GIS
7.3 Overview of Information System
7.4 The Four Ms
7.5 Contribution Disciplines
7.6 GIS Definitions and Terminology
7.6.1 Geographical Entities
7.6.2 Attributes
7.6.3 Topology
7.6.4 Congnitive Models
219-239
(xviii) Contents
7.7 GIS Queries
7.8 GIS Architecture
7.8.1 Components of a GIS
7.8.2 GIS Work Flow
7.9 Theoretical Models of GIS
7.9.1 Functional Elements of GIS
7.9.2 Fundamental Operations of GIS
7.10 Theoretical Framework for GIS
7.11 GIS Categories
7.12 Levels/Scales of Measurem~nt
8. Spatial Data Modelling 240-272
8.1 Introduction
8.2 Stages of GIS Data Modelling
8.3 Graphic Representation of Spatial Data
8.3.1 Raster Data Representation
8.3.2 Vector Data Representation
8.3.3 Spatial Data Models
8.4 Raster GIS Models
8.4.1 Simple Raster Arrays
8.4.2 Hierarchical Raster Structures
8.4.3 Types of Raster GIS Models
8.4.4 Compact Raster Data Models
8.5 Vector GIS Models
8.5.1 Spaghetti Model
8.5.2 Topological Models
8.5.3 Shape File
8.5.4 Compact Vector Data Models
8.6 Comparison of Raster and Vector Models
9. GIS Data Management 273-300
9.1 Introduction
9.2 Data Base Management Systems
9.2.1 Functions of DBMS
9.2.2 Components of DBMS
Contents (xix)
9.3 GIS Data File Management
9.3.1 Simple List
9 3.2 Ordered Sequential Files
9.3.3 Indexed Files
9 3.4 Building GIS Worlds
9.4 Database Models
9.4 1 Hierarchical Database Models
9.4.2 Network Systems
9.4.3 Relational Database Models
9.4.4 Standard Query language (SQl)
9.5 Storage of GIS Data
9.5.1 The Hydrid Data Model
9.5.2 The Integrated Data Model
9.6 Object Based Data Models
9.6.1 Entity-Relationship-Attribute Model
9.6.2 location-Based Representations for Spatlo-Temporal Data
9.6.3 Entity-Based Representations for Spatio-Temporal Data
9.6.4 Time-Based Representations for Spatio-Temporal Data
9.6.5 A Combined Approach for Spatio-Temporal Representation
9.7 Temporal Topology
9.8 Organisational Strategy of DBMS in GIS
10. Data Input and Editing 301-320
10.1 Introduction
10.2 The Data Stream
10.2.1 Existing Datasets
10.2.2 Creation of Data
10.3 Data Input Methods
10.3.1 Keyboard Entry
10.3.2 Manual Digitislng
10.3.3 Scanning and Automatic Digitising
11.
10.4 GPS for GIS Data Capture
10.4.1 Capturing Coordinate Data
10.4.2 Advantages of GPS
10.4.3 GPS Data Creation
10.5 Data Editing
10.5.1 Detecting and Correcting Errors
10.5.2 Data Reduction and Generalisation
10.5.3 Edge Matching and Rubber Sheeting
Data Quality Issues
11.1 Introduction
11.2 Components of Data Quality
11.3 Accuracy
11.3.1 Spatial Accuracy
11.3.2 Temporal Accuracy
11.3.3 Attribute Accuracy
11.3.4 Conceptual Accuracy
11.4 Precision and Resolution
11.4.1 Spatial Resolution
11.4.2 Temporal Resolution
11.4.3 Thematic Resolution
11.5 Consistency
11.6 Completeness
11.7 Sources of Error in GIS
11.8 Modelling Errors
11.8.1 Point Data Error Models
11.8.2 Line and Area Data Error Model
11.8.3 Models for Dot and Pixel Counting
11.9 Error Evaluation by Graphical Methods
11.9.1 Metadata Issues
11.9.2 Graphic Design Issues
11.9.3 Error Analysis Issues
11.9.4 User Satisfaction Issues
Contents
321-337
Contents (xxi)
12. Data Analysis and Modelling 338-372
12.1 Introduction
12.2 Format Conversion
12.2.1 Data Structure Conversion
12.2.2 Conversion of Different Raster Formats
12.2.3 Skeleton ising
12.3 Data Medium Conversion
12.3.1 Mode of Digitisation
12.3.2 Scan Digitising Systems
12.3.3 Line Array of Detectors
12.4 Spatial Measurement Methods
12.5 Reclassification
12.6 Buffering Techniques
12.7 Overlay Analysis
12.7.1 Vector Overlay Capabilities
12.7.2 Topological Overlay
12.7.3 Raster Overlay
12.8 Modelling Surfaces
12.8.1 DTM Generation
12.8.2 Triangulated Irregular Network (TIN)
12.8.3 DTM Manipulation
12.8.4 DTM Interpretation
12.8.5 Slope Model
12.8.6 DTM Visualisation
12.8.7 DTM Applications
12.9 Modelling Networks
12.10 GIS Output
12.10.1 Maps as Output
12.10.2 Graphical Outputs
13. Integration of Remote Sensing and GIS 373-388
13.1 Introduction
13.2 Remote Sensing and GIS Synergy
13.3 Raster Data for GIS
14.
13.4 Vector Data for GIS
13.5 Need for Integration
13.6 Facilities for Integration
13.7 General View on Applications
13.8 Software Scenario
Urban and Muncipal Applications
14.1 Introduction
14.2 The Role of Satellite Imagery and Other Data Sets
14.3 The Indicator Function of Urban Land Use
14.4 Appropriate Methodologies
14.4.1 Rapid Land Use Assessment
14.4.2 Rapid Land Information System Development
14.4.3 GIS as an Emerging Tool
14.5 An Analysis System
14.5.1 Dynamic Urban Land Use
14.5.2 Semi-Dynamic Land Use
14.5.3 Passive Land Use
14.6 Land Use/Land Cover System in India
14.7 Case Study of Hyderabad City
14.7 1 Growth and Development of Hyderabad
14.7.2 Division of Planning Zones
14.8 Methodology
14.8.1 Data Source and Collection
14.82 Data Processing
14.8.3 Geocodlng and Georeferenclng
14.8.4 Digital Image Enhancement of LlSS III Data
14.9 Land Use/Land Cover Map Generation
14.9.1 Image Interpretation Process
14.10 Production of GIS Output
14.11 Area Statistics
Contents
389-416
Contents (xxiii)
15. Creation of Information System: A Case Study
15.1 Objectives
15.2 Methodology
15.2.1 Work Flow
15.3 Data Used
15.3.1 Details and Limitations of the Data Used
15.4 The Study Area
15.5 Basic Themes
15.5.1 Base Map
15.5.2 Transportation Map
15.5.3 Village Map
15.5.4 Physiography Map
15.5.5 Land Use / Land Cover Map
15.5.6 Agriculture
15.5.7 Wasteland
15.6 Water Resources
15.6.1 Drainage
15.6.2 Ground Water Resources
15.6.3 Ground Water Prospects in the Study Area
15.7 Ground Water Prospects Map
417-436
15.7.1 Pediplain Shallow Weathered in Granitic Gneiss Landscape
15.7.2 Valley Fill Shallow in Granitic Gneiss Landscape
15.7.3 Pediment in Granitic Gneiss Landscape
15.7.4 Pediment-inselberg Complex in Granitic Gneiss Landscape
15.7.5 Inselberg in Granitic Gneiss Landscape
15.7.6 Residual hill in Granitic Gneiss Landscape
15.7.7 Denudational Hill in Granitic Gneiss Landscape
15.7.8 Dyke Ridge in Dolerite Landscape
15.8 Socio Economic Conditions
15.8.1 Population
15.8.2 Details of Village Wise Farmers Categories:
15.8.3 Transportation
15.8.4 Livestock
15.8.5 Education Facilities
References
Subject Index
437-447
448-453

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